Relative clauses with 'który' (which/that/who) and 'kto' (who/whoever)
A2Relative clauses in Polish: using 'który' and 'kto'
A relative clause gives extra information about a noun (the antecedent). In Polish the two most important words you will meet are który and kto. Both can translate into English as "who/which/that," but they work differently. This guide explains when to use each one, how to form the clause, how to pick the right case and form, and common mistakes to avoid. Examples are mainly in Polish with English translations.
When do I use 'który' and 'kto'?
- który (which / who / that) is the standard relative pronoun used after an explicit antecedent (a noun or pronoun already present). It can refer to people, animals or things. It agrees with that antecedent in gender (masculine/feminine/neuter) and number (singular/plural). The case of który is determined by the role that the relative pronoun plays inside the relative clause (subject, object, after a preposition, etc.).
Example:
[quote]To jest mężczyzna, który pomógł mojej siostrze.
(This is the man who helped my sister.)[/quote]
- kto (who / whoever) is used when there is NO explicit noun antecedent — that is, in free (or "headless") relatives — or after certain indefinite words (ktoś, nikt, każdy). It only refers to people. Use kto when you mean "whoever" or when the clause stands on its own.
Examples:
[quote]Kto pyta, nie błądzi.
(Whoever asks doesn't go wrong.)
Ktoś, kto zna odpowiedź, niech poda ją teraz.
(Someone who knows the answer should give it now.)[/quote]
Note: You cannot normally use kto to refer back to a specific, already-named person. Wrong: "Mężczyzna, kto tam stoi..." — instead: "Mężczyzna, który tam stoi..."
How do I form relative clauses with 'który'?
1) Start with a noun (the antecedent). 2) Decide whether the relative clause provides essential info (defining) or extra info (non-defining; see commas below). 3) Choose the form of który that matches the antecedent's gender and number. 4) Put który in the case required by its function inside the relative clause.
Step-by-step example:
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[*]Base sentences: "Znam kobietę." + "Kobieta napisała tę książkę." (I know the woman. The woman wrote this book.)
[*]Combine: "Znam kobietę, która napisała tę książkę." (I know the woman who wrote this book.)
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Declension (quick reference)
[code]Case: Nom Gen Dat Acc Instr Loc
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Masc sg (anim): który którego któremu którego którym którym
Masc sg (inan): który którego któremu który którym którym
Fem sg: która której której którą którą której
Neut sg: które którego któremu które którym którym
Masc pers (pl): którzy których którym których którymi których
Non-masc (pl): które których którym które którymi których[/code]
Notes on the table:
- For masculine animate nouns the accusative form looks like the genitive (e.g. którego). For masculine inanimate the accusative equals the nominative (i.e. który). That is a common source of confusion.
- Prepositions always stay in the relative clause and determine the case: e.g. "z którym" (with whom — instr.), "o którym" (about which — loc.), "bez którego" (without which — gen.).
Examples (covering common cases):
[quote]Nominative (subject):
To jest mężczyzna, który pomógł. (This is the man who helped.)
Accusative (direct object):
To jest mężczyzna, którego widziałem wczoraj. (This is the man whom I saw yesterday.)
To jest dom, który zbudował mój ojciec. (This is the house that my father built.)
Genitive (possession / after some verbs/prepositions):
To jest kobieta, której syn chodzi do naszej szkoły. (This is the woman whose son goes to our school.)
Dative (indirect object):
To jest mężczyzna, któremu daliśmy klucz. (This is the man to whom we gave the key.)
Instrumental / with preposition:
To jest nauczyciel, z którym rozmawiałem. (This is the teacher I spoke with.)
Locative / after preposition 'o':
To jest miasto, o którym czytałem. (This is the city I read about.)
Plural example:
Dzieci, które bawią się w parku, są szczęśliwe. (The children who are playing in the park are happy.)[/quote]
How do I use 'kto' in relative clauses (free relatives and indefinite pronouns)?
- Use kto when the clause has no explicit antecedent: it functions as the "head" of the clause. In English these are often translated as "whoever" or simply "who."
Examples:
[quote]Kto pierwszy przyjdzie, zajmie najlepsze miejsce.
(Whoever arrives first will take the best seat.)
Ktoś, kto zna odpowiedź, niech teraz powie.
(Someone who knows the answer should say it now.)
Każdy, kto chce podjąć pracę, niech się zgłasza.
(Anyone who wants to take the job should apply.)[/quote]
- kto declines when needed (kto — kogo — komu — kogo — kim — (o) kim). Example with dative: "Nie ma nikogo, komu mógłbym to powiedzieć." (There is no one to whom I could say this.)
- Important contrast: if you already have a named person (an explicit antecedent), use który, not kto. Wrong: "Mężczyzna, kto tam stoi..." Correct: "Mężczyzna, który tam stoi..."
Which case of 'który' should I use? (quick steps and examples)
1. Find the antecedent and note its gender and number.
2. Look inside the relative clause: what role does the relative pronoun play? (subject, direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition, possessor, etc.)
3. Put który in the gender/number from step 1 and the case from step 2.
Example (object in relative clause):
- Antecedent: "mężczyzna" (masc. sing., animate)
- Clause: "(I) saw ___ yesterday" → the antecedent is the direct object → accusative animate = którego
- Result: "To jest mężczyzna, którego widziałem wczoraj." (This is the man whom I saw yesterday.)
Example (preposition + noun):
- Antecedent: "nauczyciel" (masc.)
- Clause: "I talked [with] ___" → preposition "z" requires instrumental → z którym
- Result: "To jest nauczyciel, z którym rozmawiałem." (This is the teacher I spoke with.)
How do commas work with relative clauses? (defining vs non-defining)
Polish uses commas to mark non-defining (non-essential) relative clauses—extra information that could be removed without changing which thing/person you mean. If the clause identifies which one out of many (defining), you usually do NOT use commas.
Examples:
[quote]Non-defining (extra info):
Mój brat, który mieszka w Gdańsku, przyjedzie jutro.
(My brother, who lives in Gdańsk, is coming tomorrow.) — here commas indicate extra info about my single brother.
Defining (essential):
Brat który mieszka w Gdańsku przyjedzie jutro.
(The brother who lives in Gdańsk will come tomorrow.) — no commas; it distinguishes this brother from another brother.
Note: context and meaning determine comma use. If in doubt, think whether the clause restricts identification (no commas) or just adds information (commas).
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Common mistakes to avoid
[list]
[*]Using kto after an explicit antecedent. Wrong: "Osoba, kto to zrobiła..." Correct: "Osoba, która to zrobiła..."
[*]Choosing the wrong case for który. Compare:
Wrong: "To jest mężczyzna, który widziałem." (Here który is nominative but should be accusative animate.)
Correct: "To jest mężczyzna, którego widziałem."
[*]Using co where który is required or vice versa. Use co with neuter 'to' or expressions like "to, co"/"wszystko, co" (what / that which):
Correct: "Wszystko, co zrobiłeś, było dobre." (not "które")
[*]Mismatch in gender/number: "Dziecko, który..." is wrong — correct: "Dziecko, które..."
[*]Punctuation mistakes: forgetting commas for non-defining clauses or adding commas where they change the meaning.
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Quick reference: when to choose 'który' vs 'kto' vs 'co'
- Use który when the relative clause refers back to a specific noun (person or thing) already mentioned and you need agreement in gender/number/case.
- Use kto when the relative clause is free (no explicit antecedent) or after indefinite words that refer to people (ktoś, każdy) — it means "who/ whoever/anyone who."
- Use co when the clause refers to "what/that which" with neuter antecedents like "to" or with words like "wszystko, nic, coś." Do not use co for people.
Examples:
[quote]Noun antecedent (use który):
Książka, którą czytam, jest długa. (The book that I am reading is long.)
No explicit antecedent (use kto):
Kto przyjdzie, dowie się wszystkiego. (Whoever comes will find out everything.)
Neuter "what" (use co):
To, co zrobiłeś, było miłe. (What you did was nice.)[/quote]
Alternatives and reductions (participles, "to, co")
- Polish often uses participial phrases as a shorter alternative to a full relative clause:
- For "what/that which" use the combination "to, co":
"To, co powiedziałeś, było interesujące." (What you said was interesting.)
- After quantifiers you often use kto or który depending on whether the quantifier creates a definite or indefinite antecedent:
"Wszyscy, którzy przyszli, zostali przyjęci." (Everyone who came was admitted.) — here wszyscy requires którzy.
"Każdy, kto chce, może spróbować." (Anyone who wants can try.) — here kto is natural.
Glossary (simple definitions)
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[*]antecedent — the noun that the relative clause refers to (e.g. "the man" in "the man who came").
[*]relative clause — a clause that describes or identifies the antecedent ("who came" in the example above).
[*]defining / restrictive — the clause is necessary to identify which person/thing (usually no commas).
[*]non-defining / non-restrictive — the clause adds extra info about a known person/thing (usually set off by commas).
[*]case — the grammatical form (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, instrumental, locative) which shows the function of a word in the clause.
[*]declension — changing a word's ending to show gender, number and case.
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Final tip: When you build a relative clause, first decide whether you already have a clear antecedent (use który) or not (use kto). Then determine who is doing what inside the relative clause: that decides the case of który. Practice by translating short English relative clauses into Polish and checking gender/number/case agreement.